The Journal of Pain
Volume 10, Issue 9 , Pages 984-991 , September 2009

Structure of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Pain and Pain-Free Patients Scheduled for Major Surgery

  • Gabrielle M. Pagé

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
  • ,
  • Valery Kleiman

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
  • ,
  • Gordon J.G. Asmundson

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
  • ,
  • Joel Katz

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Department of Anesthesia, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Joel Katz, Department of Psychology, BSB 232, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3 (Canada).

Received 2 December 2008 ,Revised 11 February 2009 ,Accepted 18 March 2009.

References 

  1. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR, 4th Edition (Text Revision). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2000;
  2. Apkarian AV, Sosa Y, Krauss BR, Thomas PS, Fredrickson BE, Levy RE, et al. Chronic pain patients are impaired on an emotional decision-making task. Pain. 2004;108:129–136
  3. Asmundson GJG, Coons MJ, Taylor S, Katz J. PTSD and the Experience of Pain: Research and Clinical Implications of Shared Vulnerability and Mutual Maintenance Models. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry/La Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 2002;47:930–937
  4. Asmundson GJG, Stapleton JA, Taylor S. Avoidance and numbing are distinct PTSD symptom clusters. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2004;17:467–475
  5. Asmundson GJG, Wright KD, McCreary DR, Pedlar D. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in United Nations peacekeepers: An examination of factor structure in peacekeepers with and without chronic pain. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 2003;32:26–37
  6. Barlow DH. Anxiety and its disorders, 2nd edition. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2004;
  7. Beckham JC, Crawford AL, Feldman ME, Kirby AC, Hertzberg MA, Davidson JRT, et al. Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain in Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1997;43:379–389
  8. Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1996;34:669–673
  9. Breslau N, Chase GA, Anthony JC. The uniqueness of the DSM definition of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Implications for Research. Psychological Medicine. 2002;32:573–576
  10. Breslau N, Reboussin BA, Anthony JC, Storr CL. The structure of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Latent class analysis in 2 community samples. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2005;62:1343–1351
  11. Broman-Fulks JJ, Ruggiero KJ, Green BA, Kilpatrick DG, Danielson CK, Resnick H, et al. Taxometric investigation of PTSD: data from two nationally representative samples. Behavior Therapy. 2006;37:364–380
  12. Buckley TC, Blanchard EB, Hickling EJ. A confirmatory factor analysis of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1998;36:1091–1099
  13. Carrion VG, Garrett A, Menon V, Weems CF, Reiss AL. Posttraumatic stress symptoms and brain function during a response-inhibition task: An fMRI study in youth. Depression & Anxiety. 2008;25:514–526
  14. Clapp JD, Beck JG, Palyo SA, DeMond MG. An examination of the synergy of pain and PTSD on quality of life: Additive or multiplicative effects?. Pain. 2008;138:301–309
  15. Costello AB, Osborne JW: Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, & Evaluation 10: Available at: http://pareonline.net/pdf/v10n17.pdf 2005
  16. Creamer M, Bell R, Failla S. Psychometric properties of the Impact of Event Scale-Revisited. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2003;41:1489–1496
  17. Eccleston C. The attentional control of pain: methodological and theoretical concerns. Pain. 1995;63:3–10
  18. Ehlers A, Clark DM. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2000;38:319–345
  19. Fabrigar LR, Wegener DT, MacCallum RC, Strahan EJ. Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods. 1999;4:272–299
  20. Floyd FL, Widaman KF. Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment. 1995;7:286–299
  21. Foa EB, Zinbarg R, Rothbaum BO. Uncontrollability and unpredictability in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin. 1992;112:218–238
  22. Forbes D, Creamer M, Biddle D. The validity of the PTSD Checklist as a measure of symptomatic change in combat-related PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2001;39:977–986
  23. Geisser ME, Colwell MO. Chronic back pain: Conservative approaches. In:  Block AR,  Fernandez E,  Kremer EF editor. Handbook of Pain Syndromes: Biopsychosocial Perspectives, 1st Edition. Kahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1999;p. 169–190
  24. Harman K, Ruyak P. Working through the pain: a controlled study of the impact of persistent pain on performing a computer task. Clinical Journal of Pain. 2005;21:216–222
  25. Hayton JC, Allen DG, Scarpello V. Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis. Organizational Research Methods. 2004;7:191–205
  26. Horn JL. A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika. 1965;30:179–185
  27. Katz J, Asmundson GJG, McRae K, Halket E: Emotional numbing and pain intensity predict the development of pain disability up to one year after lateral thoracotomy. European Journal of Pain [serial online]. e2008. Accessed 15 October 2008
  28. Krystal H. An information processing view of object-relations. Psychoanalytic Inquiry. 1990;10:221–251
  29. Litz B. Emotional numbing in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: A critical review and reformulation. Clinical Psychology Review. 1992;12:417–432
  30. Litz BT, Schlenger WE, Weathers FW, Caddell JM, Fairbank JA, LaVange LM. Predictors of emotional numbing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1997;10:607–618
  31. Maes M, Delmeire L, Schotte C, Janca A, Creten T, Mylle J, et al. The two-factorial symptom structure of post-traumatic stress disorder: depression-avoidance and arousal-anxiety. Psychiatry Research. 1998;81:195–210
  32. McWilliams LA, Cox B, Asmundson GJG. Symptoms structure of posttraumatic stress disorder in a nationality representative sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2005;19:626–641
  33. McWilliams LA, Cox BJ, Enns MW. Mood and anxiety disorders associated with chronic pain: An examination in a nationally representative sample. Pain. 2003;106:127–133
  34. Norton PJ, Asmundson GJG. Amending the fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: What is the role of physiological arousal?. The Behavior Therapist. 2003;34:17–30
  35. O'Connor B. SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers. 2000;32:396–402
  36. Park DC, Glass JM, Minear M, Crofford LJ. Cognitive function in fibromyalgia patients. Arthritis Rheumatology. 2001;44:2125–2133
  37. Ploghaus A, Tracey I, Gati JS, Clare S, Menon RS, Matthews PM, et al. Dissociation pain from its anticipation in the human brain. Science. 1999;284:1979–1981
  38. Reiss S, McNally RJ. Expectancy model of fear. In:  Reiss S,  Bootzin RR editor. Theoretical issues in behavior therapy, 1st Edition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1985;p. 107–121
  39. Ruggiero KJ, DelBen K, Scotti JR, Rabalais AF. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian version. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2003;16:495–502
  40. Sharp TJ, Harvey AG. Chronic pain and posttraumatic stress disorder: mutual maintenance?. Clinical Psychology Review. 2001;21:857–877
  41. Taylor S, Kuch K, Koch WJ, Crockett DJ, Passey G. The structure of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1998;107:154–160
  42. Tull MT, Roemer L. Alternative explanations of emotional numbing of posttraumatic stress disorder: an examination of hyperarousal and experiential avoidance. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 2003;25:147–154
  43. van der Kolk BA. Psychological Trauma, 1st Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1987;
  44. Velicer WF, Eaton CA, Fava JL. Construct explication through factor component analysis: A review and evaluation of alternative procedures for determining the number of factors or components. In:  Goffin RD,  Helmes E editor. Problems and Solutions in Human Assessment: Honoring Douglas N. Jackson at Seventy, 1st Edition. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2000;p. 41–72
  45. Vlaeyen JWS, Linton SJ. Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: A state of the art. Pain. 2000;85:317–332
  46. Weathers FW, Huska JA, Keane TM. PCL-C for DSM-IV. Boston. MA: National Center for PTSD - Behavioral Science Division; 1991;
  47. Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, Keane TM. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. San Antonio, TX: International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; 1993;
  48. Weiss DS, Marmar CR. The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In:  Wilson JP,  Keae TM editor. Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD: A Handbook for Practitioners, 1st Edition. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1997;p. 399–411

 Supported by a CIHR Canada Research Chair in Health Psychology (JK), a CIHR Investigator Award and NET Grant (GJGA), a CIHR Graduate Scholarship – Master's Award (GMP), a FRSQ Training Grant (GMP), and a CIHR Strategic Training Fellowship in Pain: Molecules to Community (GMP and VK).

PII: S1526-5900(09)00469-6

doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2009.03.011

The Journal of Pain
Volume 10, Issue 9 , Pages 984-991 , September 2009