Highlights
- •We comprehensively identified chronic opioid therapy (COT) definition criteria.
- •The most common definition criterion of COT was 90 days’ supply, in recent years.
- •Precision in description of opioid type and dosage were lacking in literature.
Abstract
The management of chronic noncancer pain (CNCP) with chronic opioid therapy (COT)
is controversial. There is a lack of consensus on how COT is defined resulting in
unclear clinical guidance. This scoping review identifies and evaluates evolving COT
definitions throughout the published clinical and scientific literature. Databases
searched included PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. A total of 227 studies were
identified from 8,866 studies published between January 2000 and July 2019. COT definitions
were classified by pain population of application and specific dosage/duration definition
parameters, with results reported according to PRISMA-ScR. Approximately half of studies
defined COT as “days’ supply duration >90 days” and 9.3% defined as “>120 days’ supply,”
with other days’ supply cut-off points (>30, >60, or >70) each appearing in <5% of
total studies. COT was defined by number of prescriptions in 63 studies, with 16.3%
and 11.0% using number of initiations or refills, respectively. Few studies explicitly
distinguished acute treatment and COT. Episode duration/dosage criteria was used in
90 studies, with 7.5% by Morphine Milligram Equivalents + days’ supply and 32.2% by
other “episode” combination definitions. COT definitions were applied in musculoskeletal
CNCP (60.8%) most often, and typically in adults aged 18 to 64 (69.6%). The usage
of “>90 days’ supply” COT definitions increased from 3.2 publications/year before
2016 to 20.7 publications/year after 2016. An increasing proportion of studies define
COT as “>90 days’ supply.” The most recent literature trends toward shorter duration
criteria, suggesting that contemporary COT definitions are increasingly conservative.
Perspective
This study summarized the most common, current definition criteria for chronic opioid
therapy (COT) and recommends adoption of consistent definition criteria to be utilized
in practice and research. The most recent literature trends toward shorter duration
criteria overall, suggesting that COT definition criteria are increasingly stringent.
Key Words
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to The Journal of PainAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
References
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. CMCS informational bulletin: Medicaid strategies for non-opioid pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic chronic pain management. Available at: https://www.medicaid.gov/federal-policy-guidance/downloads/cib022219.pdf. (accessed August 18, 2019).
- Long-term analgesic use after low-risk surgery: A retrospective cohort study.Arch Intern Med. 2012; 172: 425-430
- Improving pain care through implementation of the Stepped Care Model at a multisite community health center.J Pain Res. 2016; 9: 1021
- Opioid misuse and abuse: Risk assessment and management in patients with cancer pain.J Natl Comprehens Cancer Netw. 2013; 11: 1023-1031
- Opioid demand before and after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.Am J Sports Med. 2017; 45: 3098-3103
- Trends in opioid use and prescribing in MEDICARE, 2006–2012.Health Serv Res. 2018; 53: 3309-3328
- Three options for citation tracking: Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science.Biomed Digit Libraries. 2006; 3: 7
- A review of potential adverse effects of long-term opioid therapy: A practitioner's guide.Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2012; 14
- Opioid therapy for chronic pain.N Engl J Med. 2003; 349: 1943-1953
- Non‐medical use of prescription opioids is associated with heroin initiation among US veterans: A prospective cohort study.Addiction. 2016; 111: 2021-2031
- High-dose prescribed opioids are associated with increased risk of heroin use among United States military veterans.Pain. 2019; 160: 2126-2135
- Measurement of opioid problems among chronic pain patients in a general medical population.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 104: 43-49
- Opioid-prescribing patterns of emergency physicians and risk of long-term use.N Engl J Med. 2017; 376: 663-673
- Ketamine decreases postoperative pain scores in patients taking opioids for chronic pain: Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind study.Pain Med. 2013; 14: 925-934
- Long-term opioid use after inpatient surgery–A retrospective cohort study.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018; 187: 61-65
- Persistent opioid use following cesarean delivery: Patterns and predictors among opioid-naive women.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016; 215 (353. e351-353. e318)
- Racial differences in primary care opioid risk reduction strategies.Ann Family Med. 2011; 9: 219-225
- Risk of adverse events in patients prescribed long‐term opioids: A cohort study in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink.Eur J Pain. 2019; 23: 908-922
- Trends in long-term opioid prescribing in primary care patients with musculoskeletal conditions: An observational database study.Pain. 2016; 157: 1525
- Persistent opioid use among children, adolescents, and young adults after common cleft operations.J Craniofac Surg. 2018; 29: 1697
- Persistent opioid use and high-risk prescribing in body contouring patients.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2019; 143: 87
- National Variation in opioid prescription fills and long-term use in opioid naïve patients after urological surgery.J Urol. 2019; 202: 1036-1043
- Do postconcussive symptoms from traumatic brain injury in combat veterans predict risk for receiving opioid therapy for chronic pain?.Brain Inj. 2018; 32: 1188-1196
- Chronic pain, opioid therapy, sexual desire, and satisfaction in sexual life: A population-based survey.Pain Med. 2019; 20: 1132-1140
- Long‐term opioid therapy in Denmark: A disappointing journey.Eur J Pain. 2017; 21: 1516-1527
- Issues in opioid management.Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2005; 84: S42-S55
- Opioid-use disorder among patients on long-term opioid therapy: Impact of final DSM-5 diagnostic criteria on prevalence and correlates.Substance Abuse Rehabil. 2015; 6: 83
- Trends in long‐term opioid therapy for chronic non‐cancer pain.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2009; 18: 1166-1175
- A survey of adult awareness and use of medicine containing acetaminophen.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2013; 22: 229-240
- Trends in long-term opioid therapy for noncancer pain among persons with a history of depression.Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2009; 31: 564-570
- New persistent opioid use after minor and major surgical procedures in US adults.JAMA Surg. 2017; 152 (e170504-e170504)
- Guideline for opioid therapy and chronic noncancer pain.CMAJ. 2017; 189: E659-E666
- Opioid prescribing at hospital discharge contributes to chronic opioid use.J Gen Intern Med. 2016; 31: 478-485
- Longitudinal pattern of pain medication utilization in peripheral neuropathy patients.Pain. 2019; 160: 592-599
- The initiation of chronic opioids: A survey of chronic pain patients.J Pain. 2017; 18: 360-365
- Age and gender trends in long-term opioid analgesic use for noncancer pain.Am J Public Health. 2010; 100: 2541-2547
- The pain and opioids in treatment study: Characteristics of a cohort using opioids to manage chronic non-cancer pain.Pain. 2015; 156: 231-242
- Impact of Florida's prescription drug monitoring program and pill mill law on high‐risk patients: A comparative interrupted time series analysis.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2018; 27: 422-429
- Pharmacoepidemiology of chronic noncancer pain patients requiring chronic opioid therapy: A nationwide population-based study.Acta Anaesthesiol Taiwan. 2015; 53: 89-94
- Improving opioid prescription practices and reducing patient risk in the primary care setting.J. Pain Res. 2014; 7: 301
- Use of prescription opioids among patients with systemic inflammatory diseases (SID) versus patients with hypertension but no sid.Arthritis & rheumatology, Wiley 111 River St, Hoboken 07030-5774. 2017 (NJ USA)
- Use of prescription opioids among patients with rheumatic diseases compared to patients with hypertension in the USA: A retrospective cohort study.BMJ Open. 2019; 9e027495
- Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain.J Pain. 2009; 10 (113-130. e122)
- The effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain: A systematic review for a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop.Ann Intern Med. 2015; 162: 276-286
- Co-morbidity and utilization of medical services by pain patients receiving opioid medications: Data from an insurance claims database.PAIN®. 2009; 144: 20-27
- A 10-yr analysis of chronic pelvic pain and chronic opioid therapy in the women veteran population.Mil Med. 2018; 183: e635-e640
- Rates and risk factors for prolonged opioid use after major surgery: Population based cohort study.BMJ. 2014; 348
- Nonrandomized intervention study of naloxone coprescription for primary care patients receiving long-term opioid therapy for pain.Ann Intern Med. 2016; 165: 245-252
- Prevalence of chronic non-cancer pain in a UK prison environment.Br J Pain. 2015; 9: 96-108
- Prevalence of chronic pain and high-impact chronic pain among adults—United States, 2016.Morbid Mortal Weekly Rep. 2018; 67: 1001
- National variation in opioid prescribing and risk of prolonged use for opioid-naive patients treated in the emergency department for ankle sprains.Ann Emerg Med. 2018; 72 (e381): 389-400
- Association of geography and access to health care providers with long‐term prescription opioid use in medicare patients with severe osteoarthritis: A cohort study.Arthritis Rheumatol. 2019; 71: 712-721
- Association between harm reduction strategies and healthcare utilization in patients on long-term prescribed opioid therapy presenting to acute healthcare settings: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis.System Rev. 2019; 8: 88
- Dose and duration of use among commercially insured adults prescribed immediate-release (IR) or extended-release (ER) oxycodone: 230.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015; 24
- A retrospective cohort study of long-term immediate-release hydrocodone/acetaminophen use and acetaminophen dosing above the Food and Drug Administration recommended maximum daily limit among commercially insured individuals in the United States (2008–2013).J Pain. 2015; 16 (e561): 569-579
- Association between initial opioid prescribing patterns and subsequent long-term use among opioid-naïve patients: A statewide retrospective cohort study.J Gen Intern Med. 2017; 32: 21-27
- Use of prescription opioids before and after an operation for chronic pain (lumbar fusion surgery).Pain. 2018; 159: 1147
- Opioids for back pain patients: primary care prescribing patterns and use of services.J Am Board Family Med. 2011; 24: 717-727
- Correlates of prescription opioid initiation and long-term opioid use in veterans with persistent pain.Clin J Pain. 2013; 29: 102
- A partnered approach to opioid management, guideline concordant care and the stepped care model of pain management.J Gen Intern Med. 2014; 29: 870-876
- No shortcuts to safer opioid prescribing.N Engl J Med. 2019; 380: 2285-2287
- CDC guideline for prescribing opioids for chronic pain—United States, 2016.JAMA. 2016; 315: 1624-1645
- Opioid prescriptions for chronic pain and overdose: A cohort study.Ann Intern Med. 2010; 152: 85-92
- Incidence and risk factors for chronic postoperative opioid use after major spine surgery: A cross-sectional study with longitudinal outcome.Anesth Analg. 2018; 127: 247
- Receipt of opioid analgesics by HIV-infected and uninfected patients.J Gen Intern Med. 2013; 28: 82-90
- Patterns of opioid use for chronic noncancer pain in the Veterans Health Administration from 2009 to 2011.PAIN®. 2014; 155: 2337-2343
- Trends in use of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain among individuals with mental health and substance use disorders: The TROUP study.Clin J Pain. 2010; 26: 1
- The role of opioid prescription in incident opioid abuse and dependence among individuals with chronic non-cancer pain: The role of opioid prescription.Clin J Pain. 2014; 30: 557
- Risk factors for clinically recognized opioid abuse and dependence among veterans using opioids for chronic non-cancer pain.Pain. 2007; 129: 355-362
- Opioid medication practices observed in chronic pain patients presenting for all-causes to emergency departments: Prevalence and impact on health care outcomes.J Managed Care Specialty Pharmacy. 2015; 21: 925-936
- Prolonged preoperative opioid therapy associated with poor return to work rates after single-level cervical fusion for radiculopathy for patients receiving workers’ compensation benefits.Spine. 2017; 42: E104-E110
- Outpatient prescription opioid use in pediatric medicaid enrollees with special health care needs.Pediatrics. 2019; 143 (e20182199)
- New persistent opioid use following common forefoot procedures for treatment of hallux valgus.Foot Ankle Orthopaed. 2018; 3: 722-729
- Adherence monitoring and drug surveillance in chronic opioid therapy.J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000; 20: 293-307
- Patients’ perspectives on tapering of chronic opioid therapy: A qualitative study.Pain Med. 2016; 17: 1838-1847
- Brief report: Population‐based reversal of the adverse impact of opioids on disability in Washington State workers’ compensation.Am J Ind Med. 2019; 62: 168-174
- Opioid use for chronic low back pain: A prospective, population-based study among injured workers in Washington state, 2002-2005.Clin J Pain. 2009; 25: 743-751
- A complete national cohort study of prescriptions of analgesics and benzodiazepines to cancer survivors in Norway 10 years after diagnosis.Pain. 2019; 160: 852-859
- A pharmacoepidemiological cohort study of subjects starting strong opioids for nonmalignant pain: A study from the Norwegian Prescription Database.PAIN®. 2013; 154: 2487-2493
- Opioid poisonings and opioid adverse effects in workers in Washington State.Am J Ind Med. 2013; 56: 1452-1462
- Racial disparities in discontinuation of long-term opioid therapy following illicit drug use among black and white patients.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018; 192: 371-376
- Thought suppression as a mediator of the association between depressed mood and prescription opioid craving among chronic pain patients.J Behav Med. 2016; 39: 128-138
- Deficits in autonomic indices of emotion regulation and reward processing associated with prescription opioid use and misuse.Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2017; 234: 621-629
- Impact of dual use of Department of Veterans Affairs and Medicare Part D drug benefits on potentially unsafe opioid use.Am J Public Health. 2018; 108: 248
- Risk of prolonged opioid use among opioid-naive patients after common shoulder arthroscopy procedures.Am J Sports Med. 2019; 47: 1043-1050
- Prediction model for two-year risk of opioid overdose among patients prescribed chronic opioid therapy.J Gen Intern Med. 2018; 33: 1646-1653
- Discrepancies between perceived benefit of opioids and self-reported patient outcomes.Pain Med. 2018; 19: 297-306
- Association of chronic opioid use with presidential voting patterns in US counties in 2016.JAMA Netw Open. 2018; 1 (e180450-e180450)
- Depression and prescription opioid misuse among chronic opioid therapy recipients with no history of substance abuse.Ann Family Med. 2012; 10: 304-311
- Clinical monitoring and high-risk conditions among patients with SUD newly prescribed opioids and benzodiazepines.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014; 142: 24-32
- Decline in prescription opioids attributable to decreases in long-term use: A retrospective study in the Veterans Health Administration 2010–2016.J Gen Intern Med. 2018; 33: 818-824
- Risk for prolonged opioid use following total knee arthroplasty in veterans.J Arthroplasty. 2018; 33: 119-123
- Disproportionate longer-term opioid use among US adults with mood disorders.Pain. 2016; 157: 2452
- Opioid-prescribing continuity and risky opioid prescriptions.Ann Family Med. 2018; 16: 440-442
- Long-term use of opioids for nonmalignant pain among community-dwelling persons with and without Alzheimer disease in Finland: A nationwide register-based study.Pain. 2017; 158: 252-260
- Age, gender, and earlier opioid requirement associations with the rate of dose escalation in long-term opioid therapy.J Opioid Manag. 2013; 9: 129-138
- Dose and duration of opioid use in propensity score–matched, privately insured opioid users with and without spinal cord injury.Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018; 99: 855-861
- Consumption of and satisfaction with health care among opioid users with chronic non‐malignant pain.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2015; 59: 1355-1366
- Chronic use of opioids before and after total knee arthroplasty: A retrospective cohort study.J Arthroplasty. 2017; 32 (e811): 811-817
- Association between long-term opioid use in family members and persistent opioid use after surgery among adolescents and young adults.JAMA Surg. 2019; 154: e185838
- Persistent opioid use among pediatric patients after surgery.Pediatrics. 2018; 141
- Persistent opioid use among pediatric patients after surgery.Pediatrics. 2018; 141 (e20172439)
- Persistent opioid use after wisdom tooth extraction.JAMA. 2018; 320: 504-506
- Clinical implications of tapering chronic opioids in a veteran population.Pain Med. 2015; 16: 1975-1981
- Prevalence and trends of concurrent opioid analgesic and benzodiazepine use among veterans affairs patients with post-traumatic stress disorder, 2003–2011.Pain Med. 2015; 16: 1943-1954
- Prevalence and trends of benzodiazepine use among Veterans Affairs patients with posttraumatic stress disorder, 2003–2010.Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012; 124: 154-161
- The influence of propoxyphene withdrawal on opioid use in veterans.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2015; 24: 1180-1188
- Impact of opioid dose escalation on the development of substance use disorders, accidents, self‐inflicted injuries, opioid overdoses and alcohol and non‐opioid drug‐related overdoses: A retrospective cohort study.Addiction. 2020; 115: 1098-1112
- Communication about chronic pain and opioids in primary care: Impact on patient and physician visit experience.Pain. 2018; 159: 371
- Dose escalation during the first year of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain.Pain Med. 2015; 16: 733-744
- Incidence of iatrogenic opioid dependence or abuse in patients with pain who were exposed to opioid analgesic therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Br J Anaesth. 2018; 120: 1335-1344
- Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions.John Wiley & Sons, 2019
- Association of long-term opioid therapy with functional status, adverse outcomes, and mortality among patients with polyneuropathy.JAMA Neurol. 2017; 74: 773-779
- Acute pain is associated with chronic opioid use after total knee arthroplasty.Regional Anesthesia Pain Med. 2018; 43: 705-711
- Sustained improvements in pain, mood, function and opioid use post interdisciplinary pain rehabilitation in patients weaned from high and low dose chronic opioid therapy.Pain. 2017; 158: 1380-1394
- Nonopioid substance use disorders and opioid dose predict therapeutic opioid addiction.J Pain. 2015; 16: 126-134
- Trends in the concomitant prescribing of opioids and benzodiazepines, 2002−2014.Am J Prev Med. 2016; 51: 151-160
- Risk factors for persistent and new chronic opioid use in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty: A retrospective cohort study.Bmj Open. 2016; 6
- Chronic preoperative opioid use is a risk factor for increased complications, resource use, and costs after cervical fusion.Spine J. 2018; 18: 1989-1998
- Trends in opioid use in commercially insured and Medicare Advantage populations in 2007-16: Retrospective cohort study.BMJ. 2018; 362: k2833
- Opioid prescribing for opioid-naive patients in emergency departments and other settings: Characteristics of prescriptions and association with long-term use.Ann Emerg Med. 2018; 71: 326-336
- Risk of opioid misuse in chronic non-cancer pain in primary care patients-A cross sectional study.BMC Family Pract. 2018; 19: 92
- Validating the Stopping Opioids after Surgery (SOS) score for sustained postoperative prescription opioid use in spine surgical patients.Spine J. 2019; 19: 1666-1671
- Machine learning for prediction of sustained opioid prescription after anterior cervical discectomy and fusion.Spine J. 2019; 19: 976-983
- Long‐term opioid therapy definitions and predictors: A systematic review.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2020; 29: 252-269
- Clinical and demographic covariates of chronic opioid and non-opioid analgesic use in rural-dwelling older adults: The MoVIES project.Int Psychogeriatr. 2013; 25: 1801-1810
- Current trends in narcotic use in pregnancy and neonatal outcomes.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011; 204: 259.e1-259.e4
- Treatment patterns, healthcare utilization, and costs of chronic opioid treatment for non-cancer pain in the United States.Am J Manag Care. 2015; 21: e222-e234
- Adherence to prescription opioid monitoring guidelines among residents and attending physicians in the primary care setting.Pain Med. 2015; 16: 480-487
- PRS65-assessing the impact of concurrent prescription opioid use on adherence to maintenance medications among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a retrospective claims analysis.Value Health. 2018; 21: S415
- Accessing biomedical literature in the current information landscape.Biomedical literature mining. Springer, 2014: 11-31
- Preoperative chronic opioid users in total knee arthroplasty—which patients persistently abuse opiates following surgery?.J Arthroplasty. 2018; 33: 107-112
- Patterns and predictors of persistent opioid use following hip or knee arthroplasty.Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2017; 25: 1399-1406
- Impact of preoperative opioid use after emergency general surgery.J Gastrointest Surg. 2018; 22: 1098-1103
- Correlates of high-dose opioid medication use for low back pain in primary care.J Pain. 2013; 14: S77
- Correlates of higher-dose opioid medication use for low back pain in primary care.J Pain. 2012; 13: 1131-1138
- Primary care monitoring of long-term opioid therapy among veterans with chronic pain.Pain Med. 2011; 12: 740-746
- Challenges with implementing the centers for disease control and prevention opioid guideline: A consensus panel report.Pain Med. 2019; 20: 724-735
- Burden of alcohol abuse or dependence among long-term opioid users with chronic noncancer pain.J Manag Care Specialty Pharm. 2017; 23: 718-724
- Variability in opioid prescription monitoring and evidence of aberrant medication taking behaviors in urban safety-net clinics.Pain. 2015; 156: 335
- A multicomponent intervention to improve primary care provider adherence to chronic opioid therapy guidelines and reduce opioid misuse: A cluster randomized controlled trial protocol.J Subst Abuse Treat. 2016; 60: 101-109
- Work enabling opioid management.J Occup Environ Med. 2017; 59: 761-764
- New persistent opioid use among patients with cancer after curative-intent surgery.J Clin Oncol. 2017; 35: 4042
- Weighing the risks and benefits of chronic opioid therapy.Indian J Clin Pract. 2019; 29: 982-990
- Elective shoulder surgery in the opioid naïve: rates of and risk factors for long-term postoperative opioid use.Am J Sports Med. 2019; 47: 1051-1056
- A description of Medical Examiner prescription-related deaths and prescription drug monitoring program data.Am J Emerg Med. 2016; 34: 510-514
- Topcare-a multicomponent intervention to improve adherence to chronic opioid therapy guidelines and reduce opioid misuse in primary care: A cluster randomized controlled trial.Journal of general internal medicine, Springer 233 Spring St. 2017 (NEW YORK, NY 10013 USAS357-S357)
- Opioids in hip fracture patients: An analysis of mortality and post hospital opioid use.Injury. 2015; 46: 1341-1345
- Correlates of prescription opioid therapy in veterans with chronic pain and history of substance use disorder.J Rehabil Res Dev. 2016; 53: 25-36
- Clinician referrals for non-opioid pain care following discontinuation of long-term opioid therapy differ based on reasons for discontinuation.J Gen Intern Med. 2018; 33: 24-30
- Correlates of use and perceived effectiveness of non-pharmacologic strategies for chronic pain among patients prescribed long-term opioid therapy.J Gen Intern Med. 2018; 33: 46-53
- Regional and rural–urban variation in opioid prescribing in the Veterans Health Administration.Mil Med. 2019; 184: 894-900
- Patterns and correlates of prescription opioid use in OEF/OIF veterans with chronic noncancer pain.Pain Med. 2011; 12: 1502-1509
- American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines for responsible opioid prescribing in chronic non-cancer pain: Part I–evidence assessment.Pain Phys. 2012; 15: S1-65
- Prevalence of side effects of prolonged low or moderate dose opioid therapy with concomitant benzodiazepine and/or antidepressant therapy in chronic non-cancer pain.Pain Phys. 2009; 12: 259-267
- Ultrarestrictive opioid prescription protocol for pain management after gynecologic and abdominal surgery.JAMA Netw Open. 2018; 1: e185452
- Long‐term opioid therapy for chronic non‐cancer pain in Germany.Eur J Pain. 2016; 20: 767-776
- Long-term chronic opioid therapy discontinuation rates from the TROUP study.J Gen Intern Med. 2011; 26: 1450-1457
- Natural language processing–Identified problem opioid use and its associated health care costs.J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2018; 32: 106-115
- Effect of chronic narcotic use on episode-of-care outcomes following primary anatomic total shoulder arthroplasty.Curr Orthopaed Pract. 2019; 30: 231-234
- Impaired frontostriatal functional connectivity among chronic opioid using pain patients is associated with dysregulated affect.Addict Biol. 2020; 25: e12743
- Conversion to persistent or high-risk opioid use after a new prescription from the emergency department: Evidence from Washington Medicaid beneficiaries.Ann Emerg Med. 2019; 74: 611-621
- Co‐morbidity in persistent opioid users with chronic non‐malignant pain in Norway.Eur J Pain. 2014; 18: 1083-1093
- Concomitant medication among persistent opioid users with chronic non‐malignant pain.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2012; 56: 1267-1276
- Managing chronic pain in cancer survivors prescribed long-term opioid therapy: A national survey of ambulatory palliative care providers.J Pain Symptom Manage. 2019; 57: 20-27
- Outpatient therapeutic chronic opioid consumption in Italy: A one-year survey.Minerva Anestesiol. 2016; 83: 33-40
- Adherence to opioid therapy in patients with chronic non-cancer pain attending a pain clinic in Malaysia.Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2018; 11: 0974-2441
- National trends in long‐term use of prescription opioids.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2018; 27: 526-534
- Care management practices for chronic pain in veterans prescribed high doses of opioid medications.Fam Pract. 2013; 30: 671-678
- Clinical characteristics of veterans prescribed high doses of opioid medications for chronic non-cancer pain.PAIN®. 2010; 151: 625-632
- Adherence to clinical guidelines for opioid therapy for chronic pain in patients with substance use disorder.J Gen Intern Med. 2011; 26: 965
- The 1-year treatment course of new opioid recipients in Veterans Health Administration.Pain Med. 2016; 17: 1282-1291
- Lack of association between the use of nerve blockade and the risk of persistent opioid use among patients undergoing shoulder arthroplasty: Evidence from the Marketscan Database.Anesthesia Analgesia. 2017; 125: 1014-1020
- Opioid-prescribing outcomes of medicare beneficiaries managed by nurse practitioners and physicians.Med Care. 2019; 57: 482-489
- Patient factors associated with prolonged postoperative opioid use after total knee arthroplasty.J Arthroplast. 2018; 33: 2449-2454
- Transdermal fentanyl for chronic pain in AIDS: A pilot study.J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001; 21: 69-77
Nkyekyer EW, Fulton-Kehoe D, Spector J, Franklin G. Opioid and benzodiazepine use before injury among workers in Washington State, 2012 to 2015. J Occup Environ Med. 60:820-826, 2018
- Implementation of a pharmacist-managed clinic for patients with chronic nonmalignant pain.Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2017; 74: 1229-1235
- The impact of increased hydrocodone regulation on opioid prescribing in an urban safety-net health care system.J Am Board Family Med. 2019; 32: 362-374
- Incidence and predictors of new persistent opioid use following inflammatory bowel disease flares treated with oral corticosteroids.Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019; 49: 74-83
- Patterns and correlates of medical cannabis use for pain among patients prescribed long-term opioid therapy.Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2018; 50: 104-110
- Comparing different chronic preoperative opioid use definitions on outcomes after spine surgery.Spine J. 2019; 19: 984-994
- Geographic variation of chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia.Clin Ther. 2013; 35: 303-311
- Aberrant drug-related behavior observed during clinical studies involving patients taking chronic opioid therapy for persistent pain and fentanyl buccal tablet for breakthrough pain.J Pain Symptom Manage. 2011; 41: 116-125
- Patterns of opioid prescribing and predictors of chronic opioid use in an industrial cohort, 2003–2013.J Occup Environ Med. 2018; 60: 457
- Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews.Int J Evidence-Based Healthc. 2015; 13: 141-146
- A scoping review of scoping reviews: Advancing the approach and enhancing the consistency.Res Synth Methods. 2014; 5: 371-385
- Trends in opioid utilization before and after total knee arthroplasty.J Arthroplasty. 2018; 33 (e141): S147-S153
- Treatment of cancer pain.Lancet North Am Ed. 2011; 377: 2236-2247
- Association of mental health conditions and treatments with long-term opioid analgesic receipt among adolescents.JAMA Pediatr. 2018; 172: 423-430
- South African guideline for the use of chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain.S Afr Med J. 2014; 104: 79-89
- Use of opioid medications for chronic noncancer pain syndromes in primary care.J Gen Intern Med. 2002; 17: 173-179
- Comparison of downstream health care utilization, costs, and long-term opioid use: Physical therapist management versus opioid therapy management after arthroscopic hip surgery.Phys Ther. 2018; 98: 348-356
- Increased risk of reproductive dysfunction in women prescribed long‐term opioids for musculoskeletal pain: A matched cohort study in the Clinical Practice Research Datalink.Eur J Pain. 2018; 22: 1701-1708
- The potential role for smartphones among older adults with chronic noncancer pain: A qualitative study.Pain Med. 2018; 19: 1132-1139
- Mental health disorders and long-term opioid use among adolescents and young adults with chronic pain.J Adolesc Health. 2012; 50: 553-558
- How frequently are contraindicated or warned against combinations of drugs prescribed to patients receiving long‐term opioid therapy for chronic pain?.Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2012; 21: 453-462
- Opioid use in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica.Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2017; 35: 1014
- Adverse selection? A multi-dimensional profile of people dispensed opioid analgesics for persistent non-cancer pain.PLoS One. 2013; 8: e80095
- Does opioid therapy affect quality of care for diabetes mellitus?.Am J Manag Care. 2009; 15: 217
- Persistence with opioids post discharge from hospitalisation for surgery in Australian adults: A retrospective cohort study.BMJ Open. 2019; 9e023990
- Prolonged opioid use after knee arthroscopy in military veterans.Anesthesia Analgesia. 2014; 119: 454-459
- Trends in chronic opioid therapy among cancer survivors.Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2018; 36: 6584
- Trends in opioid use among older survivors of colorectal, lung, and breast cancers.J Clin Oncol. 2019; 37: 1001
- A practice guide for continuous opioid therapy for refractory daily headache: Patient selection, physician requirements, and treatment monitoring.Headache. 2010; 50: 1175-1193
- Trends and patterns of geographic variation in opioid prescribing practices by state, United States, 2006-2017.JAMA Netw Open. 2019; 2: e190665
- The supply of prescription opioids: Contributions of episodic-care prescribers and high-quantity prescribers.Ann Emerg Med. 2018; 71 (e663): 668-673
- Sustained preoperative opioid use is a predictor of continued use following spine surgery.JBJS. 2018; 100: 914-921
- Leading the way to solutions to the opioid epidemic: AOA critical issues.JBJS. 2017; 99: e113
- Impact of medical marijuana legalization on opioid use, chronic opioid use, and high-risk opioid use.J Gen Intern Med. 2019; 34: 1419-1426
- Incidence and disease burden of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy in a population-based cohort.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2018; 89: 636-641
- Long‐term opioid therapy in older cancer survivors: A retrospective cohort study.J Am Geriatr Soc. 2019; 67: 945-952
- Opioid dependence and health care utilization after decompression and fusion in patients with adult degenerative scoliosis.Spine. 2019; 44: 280-290
- Reducing coprescriptions of benzodiazepines and opioids in a veteran population.Am J Manag Care. 2018; 24: e265-e269
- Potentially unsafe chronic medication use among older adult chronic opioid users.Pharmacotherapy. 2019; 39: 140-149
- Opioid use in patients with ankylosing spondylitis is common in the United States: Outcomes of a retrospective cohort study.J Rheumatol. 2019; 46: 1450-1457
- Risks of developing persistent opioid use after major surgery.JAMA Surg. 2016; 151: 1083-1084
- The contribution of obesity to prescription opioid use in the United States.Pain. 2019; 160: 2255
- Problems and concerns of patients receiving chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain.PAIN®. 2010; 149: 345-353
- Lack of association between the use of nerve blockade and the risk of postoperative chronic opioid use among patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty: Evidence from the Marketscan database.Anesthesia Analgesia. 2017; 125: 999-1007
- Incidence of and risk factors for chronic opioid use among opioid-naive patients in the postoperative period.JAMA Intern Med. 2016; 176: 1286-1293
- Persistent opioid use and socio‐economic factors: A population‐based study in N orway.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2014; 58: 437-445
- Differential patterns of opioid use: Defining persistent opioid use in a prescription database.Eur J Pain. 2012; 16: 359-369
- Definition development and prevalence of new persistent opioid use following hysterectomy.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018; 219: 486.e1-486.e7
- Impact of opioid dose reduction and risk mitigation initiatives on chronic opioid therapy patients at higher risk for opioid-related adverse outcomes.Pain Medicine. 2018; 19: 2450-2458
- Age and sex trends in long-term opioid use in two large American health systems between 2000 and 2005.Pain Med. 2010; 11: 248-256
- Do patient-perceived pros and cons of opioids predict sustained higher-dose use?.Clin J Pain. 2014; 30
- Chronic use of tramadol after acute pain episode: Cohort study.BMJ. 2019; 365: l1849
- A scoping review of rapid review methods.BMC Med. 2015; 13: 224
- PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation.Ann Intern Med. 2018; 169: 467-473
- Provider opioid prescribing practices and the belief that opioids keep people living with HIV engaged in care: A cross-sectional study.AIDS Care. 2019; 31: 1140-1144
- Chronic opioid therapy urine drug testing in primary care: Prevalence and predictors of aberrant results.J Gen Intern Med. 2014; 29: 1663-1671
- Association of levels of opioid use with pain and activity interference among patients initiating chronic opioid therapy: A longitudinal study.Pain. 2016; 157: 849
- Impact of opioid dose reduction on individuals with chronic pain: results of an online survey.J Pain Res. 2018; 11: 2769
- Prolonged preoperative opioid therapy in patients with degenerative lumbar stenosis in a workers” compensation setting.Spine J. 2017; 17: S203
- National study of discontinuation of long-term opioid therapy among veterans.Pain®. 2014; 155: 2673-2679
- The impact of opioid risk reduction initiatives on high-dose opioid prescribing for patients on chronic opioid therapy.J Pain. 2016; 17: 101-110
- Time-scheduled vs. pain-contingent opioid dosing in chronic opioid therapy.Pain. 2011; 152: 1256-1262
- Defacto long-term opioid therapy for non-cancer pain.Clin J Pain. 2008; 24: 521
- Timeliness of care planning upon initiation of chronic opioid therapy for chronic pain.Pain Med. 2016; 17: 511-520
- Long-term use of opioids for complex chronic pain.Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2013; 27: 663-672
- 'De facto long-term opioid therapy for noncancer pain': Erratum.Clin J Pain. 2014; 30 (830-830)
- Classifying preoperative opioid use for surgical care.Ann Surg. 2020; 271: 1080
- Opioid use after ICU admission among elderly chronic opioid users in Ontario: A population-based cohort study.Crit Care Med. 2018; 46: 1934-1942
- Sleep-disordered breathing and chronic opioid therapy.Pain Med. 2007; 9: 425-432
- Prevalence of and factors associated with long-term concurrent use of stimulants and opioids among adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.JAMA Netw Open. 2018; 1: e181152
- Trends in prescribed opioid therapy for non-cancer pain for individuals with prior substance use disorders.Pain. 2009; 145: 287-293
- Defining risk of prescription opioid overdose: Pharmacy shopping and overlapping prescriptions among long-term opioid users in medicaid.J Pain. 2015; 16: 445-453
- Correlates of benzodiazepine use and adverse outcomes among patients with chronic pain prescribed long-term opioid therapy.Pain Med. 2019; 20: 1148-1155
- Indications for long-term extended-release opioid therapy in commercially-insured adults in the US, 2006-2014.Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety, Wiley 111 River St, Hoboken 07030-5774. 2017 (NJ USA628-628)
- Opioid use in patients with rheumatoid arthritis 2005–2014: A population-based comparative study.Clin Rheumatol. 2016; 35: 1137-1144
- Dose and duration of opioid use in patients with cancer and noncancer pain at an outpatient hospital setting in Malaysia.Pain Pract. 2017; 17: 774-781
Article info
Publication history
Published online: October 05, 2020
Footnotes
Conflicts of Interest: All authors report no conflicts of interest.
Identification
Copyright
© 2020 by United States Association for the Study of Pain, Inc.
